Selected Readings in Computer

Selected Readings in Computer-Mediated Communicati Essay on, Communication ThThis is a selected listing of items related to Computer-MediatedCommunication, the Internet, and network information infrastructure anduse. These items were on my qualifying exam reading list for the doctoral program in Communication and Rhetoric at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. I took these exams in September, 1993. The first sections describe what the articles and books are about. Following these sections is the full bibliography. Comments are welcome. This files URL http://www.december.com/john/papers/cmcbib93.txtContents1 Explaining Computer-Mediated Communication 1.1 Meta-theories 1.2 Conceptualizations of Computing 1.3 Theories, Models, Typologies and Propositions 1.4 Innovation Diffusion/Media Choice and Adoption/Critical Mass 1.4.1 Critical Mass Theory 1.5 Information/Media Richness 1.6 Social/Psychological Factors 1.7 Social Presence Model 1.8 Reduced Social Cues (RSC) Approach 1.9 Social Identity Theory and De-individuation Processes (SIDE) Model 1.10 Social Information/Influence/Context Model 1.11 Language Aspects/Rhetorical 1.12 Media Characteristics / Media Evolution2 Studies and Applications of Computer-Mediated Communication 2.1 Studies 2.1.1 Comparing CMC with FTF2.1.2 Socioemotional Content in CMC 2.2 Computer-Mediated Scholarship/Education 2.3 CMC Infrastructure2.3.1 Forums and Tools2.3.2 Networks3 Organizational Communication 3.1 Theory3.1.1 Structure/Functions of Organizations 3.1.2 Human Relations3.1.3 Comm unication as Process of Organization 3.1.4 Adaptive Structuration Theory3.1.5 Organizations as Cultures 3.1.6 Network Analysis 3.2 Studies of Organizations 3.3 Technology/Communication in Organizations 3.4 Organizational CMC 3.5 CSCW3.5.1 GDSS Bibliography1Explaining Computer-Mediated Communication1.1Meta-theories* Rice (1992) recursively summarizes material from CMC reviews. Mainpoint: Even a general awareness of the diversity of these contexts, muchless the numerous studies associated with the various contexts, shouldobviate the easy and ill-formed introduction found in many CMC studies,that there is little theoretical or empirical research in this area. * Rice (1989a) asserts that we need to integrate CMC research aroundfour themes: stakeholders, goals, domains, and tools. Main point: p. 436Integrate CMC research across disciplines/tech/research processes viastakeholders, goals, analytical domain, and tools. 1.2Conceptualizations of Computing* Mowshowitz (1981) describes five positions underlyingconceptualizations of computing: technicism, progressive individualism,elitism, pluralism, radical criticism. * Hirschheim (1985) describes underlying epistemological and ontologicalstances in office automation research. * Turkle (1982) talks about how we project our ideas onto computers. 1.3Theories, Models, Typologies and Propositions* Burge (1992) presents a detailed bibliography for current literature indistance education and CMC. * Rice (1992) recursively summarizes material from CMC reviews. Mainpoint: Even a general awareness of the diversity of these contexts, muchless the numerous studies associated with the various contexts, shouldobviate the easy and ill-formed introduction found in many CMC studies,that there is little theoretical or empirical research in this area. * Hacker and Monge (1988) describes theory ofcommunication/information models and designs of CMC systems. * Johnston (1989) comments on Rices article on issues and concepts inresearch on CMC. * McCreary (1990) describes three behavior models for CMC. * Rice and Boan (1985) describes journals about CMC. * Culnan and Markus (1987) describes media use factors. Main point:CMC is low in social presence (no noverbal); therefore, it is task-orientedand impersonal. * Bowers (1992) claims artifacts have politics by analyzing formalisms ofdesign or implementation. Main point: If we are to take computertechnology seriously, we will have to abandon innocent humanism infavor of a cyber politics.* Cathcart and Gumpert (1983) talk about mediated interpersonalcommunication. * Feenberg (1986) presents an operating manual for computerconferencing. * Ghani (1988) describes flow theory in CMC. * Kuehn (1990) asserts that play theory explains CMC as communicationplay when communicators can alter interaction and achieve goals. 1.4Innovation Diffusion/Media Choice and Adoption/Critical Mass* Rogers (1983) describes the diffusion of innovations. * Rogers (1986) describes impacts of innovations. * Grantham and Vaske (1985) summarizes factors affectingdiffusion/adoption of the technology. * Leonard-Barton (1988) describes role of implementation process ininnovation diffusion. * Markus (1987) describes diffusion and adoption of interactive mediasystems in terms of critical mass. * Markus (1990) describes critical mass theory for interactive media,which directs attention away from the individual to the community levelof analysis. * Miles (1992) reviews issues of applying CMC to publishing andinterpersonal communication on national scales (Britain, France). * Thompson (1975) describes idea of electronic hallway as facilitatinggroup formation and operation. * Turoff (1989)* Korzenny (1978) presents a theory for electronic closeness inorganizations. * Alexander, Penley, and Jernigan (1991) explores the effects ofdifferences in how managers choose media. * Ebadi and Utterback (1984) describes how communication affectstechnology use. 1.4.1 Critical Mass TheoryA threshold model that explains how use develops in a community. * Markus (1987) describes diffusion and adoption of interactive mediasystems in terms of critical mass. * Markus (1990) describes critical mass theory for interactive media,which directs attention away from the individual to the community levelof analysis. * Oliver, Marwell, and Teixeira (1985) explains critical mass theory. * Valente (1991) describes thresholds for critical mass in innovationdiffusion. 1.5Information/Media RichnessReduce ambiguity through media selection. * Daft and Macintosh (1981)describes information richness theory in organizations. * Daft and Lengel (1984) applies media richness theory to organizations. Main point: p. 194 organizational success is based on the organizationsability to process information of appropriate richness to reduceuncertainty and clarify ambiguity.* Daft and Lengel (1986) describes theory of media richness used inorganizations. * Daft, Lengel, and Trevino (1987) uses media richness model applied tomessage equivocality and media selection. * Trevino, Daft, and Lengel (1990) describes the use of symbolicinteractionism to understand managers media choices in terms of messageequivocality, contextual determinants, and media symbolism. * Trevino, Lengel, Bodensteiner, Gerloff, and Muir (1990) p. 176 Thisarticle proposes a new thesis about the role of individual differences inmanagers media choice behavior. Main point: Media preferences operatewhen equivocality is low; in high equivocality situations, there is animperative to use rich media. * Trevino, Lengel, and Daft (1987) describes media richness theory inorganizations. * Rice and Shook (1990a) explores job categories and organizational levelsand communication channels, including email. * Lengel and Daft (1988) gives guidelines for managers selecting media. * Duncan (1972) explains characteristics of an organization versusperceived environmental uncertainty1.6Social/Psychological Factors* Kiesler, Siegel, and McGuire (1984) describes social and psychologicalaffects of CMC. * Boshier (1990) discusses social/psychological factors in electronicnetworking, focusing on email role in adult education, identifying researchand theory. Main point: Electronic networks can help adult educationand lifelong learning because they help increase interaction, provide forequal opportunity, and create a noncoercive, nonhierarchical, reciprocalenvironment. * Cathcart and Gumpert (1985) communicating through computer createsinterpersonal communication dyad (user computer). * Kling and Gerson (1977) explores social context features of CMCaffecting communities of users. * McGuire (1983) describes contextualism as a counterpoint toempiricism. * Short, Williams, and Christie (1976) describes social presence theory foranalyzing mediated communication. Main point: p. 65 We hypothesizethat communications media vary in their degree of Social Presence, andthat these variations are important in determining the way individualsinteract.1.7Social Presence Model* Short, Williams, and Christie (1976) describes social presence theory foranalyzing mediated communication. Main point: p. 65 We hypothesizethat communications media vary in their degree of Social Presence, andthat these variations are important in determining the way individualsinteract.* Bales (1950)* Short (1974) compared FTF, sound only, and CCTV communication totest social presence hypothesis about persuasion. * Johansen (1977) uses social presence model to examine social aspects ofteleconferencing. 1.8Reduced Social Cues (RSC) ApproachBasic Thesis: CMC features (reduced social/context cues) lead topsychological states (reduced impact of social norms and constraints)which undermine social, normative influences leading to deregulatedbehavior. * Kiesler (1986) describes how the social effects of computersmay be greater and more important than you imagine. Main point: p. 46 Computers have social effects, cut down hierarchies, cut across normsand organization boundaries. * McGuire, Kiesler, and Siegel (1987) explores influence of groupcommunication and group decision processes on group decisions. * Siegel, Dubrovsky, Kiesler, and McGuire (1986)* Sproull and Kiesler (1986) analyzes e-mail use and characteristics in anorganization. * Siegel, Dubrovsky, Kiesler, and McGuire (1986)* Rutter (1987) describes cueless model for communicating bytelephone. * Morley and Stephenson (1977) discuss bargaining, test out cuelessmodel. * DeSanctis and Gallupe (1987) apply cuelessness to study of GDSS. 1.9Social Identity Theory and De-individuation Processes (SIDE) Model* Spears and Lea (1992) explores the social/psychological dimensions ofCMC: email and CC vs. FTF via Social Identity Theory andDe-individuation Processes (SIDE) Model. * Spears, Lea, and Lee (1990)* Diener (1980) discusses de-individuation in groups. * Festinger, Pepitone, and Newcomb (1952) describes de-individuation ina group. * Lea and Spears (1991a)* Lea and Spears (1991b)1.10Social Information/Influence/Context ModelMedia perceptions and use are socially constructed. * Fulk, Schmitz, andSteinfield (1990) proposes a model for technology use which is based onsocial context effects: social influence model of media use. Main point: p. 121 Basic assumption of social influence model of media use: mediaperceptions are subjective/social constructed. * Fulk, Schmitz, and Schwartz (1992) develop CMC context themes andpropose a perspective on social context and context-behavior relations. * Fulk, Steinfield, Schmitz, and Power (1987) explores social informationprocessing as a model for media use. * Bem (1972) describes attribution theory. * Chesebro (1985) describes CMC used in interpersonal contexts bystudying a BBS. * Feenberg and Bellman (1990) social factors model posits that distinctiveorganizational features guide the design of CC systems. * Feenberg (1989) asserts that types and use of CMC systems must bebased on the sociology of the group. * Feenberg (1992) traces the success of the French Teletel (Minitel)videotex system in France. * Gattiker (1992c) suggest directions for future research intechnology-mediated communication. * Georgoudi and Rosnow (1985) describes contextualism from theperspective of the nature of context (as opposed from mechanisticassumptions). Main point: Contextualism is marked by recognizingcommunication as a process embedded in a constantly changing, cultural,cognitive, and social context. * Hellerstein (1986) presents study of social uses of CMC atUMass-Amherst; CMC mediates and facilitates social life. * Schmitz and Fulk (1991) describes media richness, social influencetheory applied to organizations. * Matheson (1991) examines the extent to which social perceptions inCMC are influenced by social information availability and based oninternalized social expectations. * Salancik and Pfeffer (1978) describes social information processingtheory. * Smilowitz, Compton, and Flint (1988) CMC changes the way peopleinteract, accomplish comm. tasks. * Lea (1992) introduces book on contextual influences on CMC. * Martin, OShea, Fung, and Spears (1992) surveys flaming phenomenonin CMC. * Bandura (1986) describes social learning theory. * Montes (1992) questions social presence theory, suggests interaction tobe creator of context. * Perry (1988) discusses use of contextualist approach to media effects. * Thomas and Griffin (19XX) reviews literature on social informationprocessing model. * Tushman and Nadler (1978) puts forth an information processing modelfor organizations. 1.11Language Aspects/Rhetorical* Baron (1984) describes CMC as a force in language culture. * Ferrara, Brunner, and Whittemore (1991) describes interactive writtendiscourse (IWD, the written language occurring in simultaneousterminal-to-terminal typed dialogues.)* Finnegan (1988) describes how literacy and orality are affected bycommunication technology. * Lakoff (1982) Oral is becoming more valued than literacy, writingimitates oral. * Murray (1991) describes the composing process for computerconversation. * Ochs (1989) explores language use and culture. * Ong (1977) Technology changed culture and thought. * Ong (1982) Thought and expressed changed in the shift from orality toliteracy. * Shank (1993) argues network communication is not oral or written butsemiotic. * December (1993a) compares net discourse in USENET newsgroup withcharacteristics of orality as defined by Walter J. Ong. Main point: Thediscourse on the Internet brings back pre-literate characteristics; it is atertiary form of orality (the first two being, pre-literature culture andwidespread radio and tv broadcasting). * Shaver (1990) describes measures of reliability and validity of attitudemeasures of writing with a computer. * Spitzer (1986) describes writing style in computer conferences. * Tannen (1982) Oral/literate continuum = focus: involvement contextv. content. * Thompson (1988) describes how interactive networking can be used forspeech, writing, and composition. * Black, Levin, Mehan, and Quinn (1983) describes real and non-real timediscourse. * December (1994) discusses and analyzes the strategies communicatorscan use to exchange information on global computer networks. Mainpoint: The communicators task in creating and structuring informationhas always included considerations of purpose and audience. Incommunicating over networks, however, the communicators task includesconsiderations of the nature of the medium_distribution, access,information-sharing practices, and social context. 1.12Media Characteristics / Media Evolution* Fowler and Wackerbarth (1980) studies audio teleconferencing incomparison with FTF conferencing. * Innis (1972) explores roles of media as used by different civilizations. Main point: Media use and forms (bias and emphasis) contribute tocivilization and political structures of societies. * Harnad (1991) asserts that the fourth cognitive revolution is electroniccommunication. * Havelock (1986) traces how writing transformed Greek culture fromorality to literacy. * Levinson (1986) describes McLuhans ideas with regard to computerconferencing. * Levinson (1990) sees CMC as an ongoing evolution of media: speech,writing, printing, telecommunications. * McLuhan and Powers (1989) describes the idea of the global villagetransforming life and media. * McLuhan (1964) explores the extensions of people through media. Mainpoint: Medias characteristics create and operate in a social and historicalcontext; electric technologies create an emphasis on effect and totalinvolvement. * McLuhan (1965) Technology revises the linearism of print. Main point:The Gutenberg Galaxy is intended to trace the ways in which the formsof experience and of mental outlook and expression have been modified,first by the phonetic alphabet and then by printing.* McLuhan and Fiore (1967) asserts that media extends consciousness. Main point: p. 26 All media work us over completely. They are sopervasive in their personal, political, economic, aesthetic, psychological,moral, ethical, and social consequences that they leave no part of usuntouched, unaffected, unaltered. The medium is the massage. Anyunderstanding of social and cultural change is impossible without aknowledge of the way media work as environments.* Rice and Associates (1984) summarizes research dealing with computersand communication. * Schement and Lievrouw (1987) describes assumptions of informationsociety research. * Smith (1980) traces development and transformation of newspapermarkets and audiences. * Stewart (1992) describes a study of voice mail (VM) revealing innovationreasons. Main point: Need to have user involvement in development,prototype, selection, planning, and implementation of an innovation. * Thomas and Miles (1989) describes the development of telematics in theUnited Kingdom. * Vallee (1982) presents perspectives on the network revolution. * Williams and Rice (1983) talk about personal relationships in CMC. 2Studies and Applications of Computer-Mediated Communication2.1Studies* Komsky (1991) p. 310 examines factors that differentiate amongfrequent and occasional users of electronic mail, for the purpose ofdeveloping a profile of users to help organizations develop strategies forincreasing system usage.* Hiltz and Turoff (1978) surveys effects of CMC on people. * Hiltz and Turoff (1993) surveys effects of CMC on people, revisededition of 1978 edition. * Chesebro and Bonsall (1989) describes computerized communication aswidespread, altering human communication patterns and culture. * Dennis, Nunamaker, and Vogel (1990) compares laboratory and fieldresearch in the study of electronic meetings. * Steinfield (1986a)* Adkins (1991) shows that recipients of email messages did not perceivethe sender as self-absorbed (egocentric-like). * Adrianson and Hjelmquist (1988) reports questionnaire study of COMsystem showing how COM system showed spontaneity, aggression; judgedefficient as a tool for sending and receiving simple messages. * Adrianson and Hjelmquist (1991) reports study which shows FTFcommunication induced more conformity and opinion change than CMC. * Anderson and Jay (1985) uses network analysis to examine the adoptionof a computerized information system by physicians. * Beals (1990) studied transcripts of computer conferences on BeginningTeacher Computer Network (BTCN). * Bresler (1990) found significant differences between males and femalesin a high school electronic communication. * Finholt, Sproull, and Kiesler (1990) examines use of electronic mail instudent work groups, where groups had similar tasks but used email todifferent degrees. The paper speculates on the larger organizationalimplications. * Gerola and Gomory (1984) studied engineers use of networks, found noimprovement in work. * Grint (1989) explores issues in CMC participation: fear of publicridicule, status, gender, technical expertise. * Guallupe and McKeen (1990) investigates use of decision supportsystems for face-to-face versus remote meetings. * Hartman, Neuwirth, and Kiesler (1991) describes patterns of socialinteraction and network technology effects on learning to write. * Hiemstra (1982) describes teleconferencing and organizational culture. * Hiltz and Johnson (1989) measures acceptance of CMC systems interms of use, subjective satisfaction, and benefits. Main point: Thefindings suggest that future studies of CMCSs in particular, and perhapscomputer-based information systems in general, should not assume thatusage alone or subjective satisfaction alone are adequate measures ofsuccessful implementation.* Hiltz and Johnson (1990) Measures user satisfaction with CMCs. Jack Dempsey Essay* Markus (1983) describes interactionist theory for humans confrontingtechnology. * Nass and Mason (1990) considers broad base of technologies in theorganization/technology interface. * Orlikowski (1992) explores concepts of technology in organizations. * Rogers (1988) describes how logical expectations for media use are notmet. * Zmud, Lind, and Young (1990)* Clement (1988) surveys office automation and control of informationworkers. Main point: p. 218 Information workers are subject to greatermanagerial control through information systems. * Allen and Hauptman (1987) describes the influence of communicationtechnologies on organizational structure for providing state-of-the-artinformation and coordination across technical specialties. * Allen and Hauptman (1990) demonstrate how organizational infoprocessing can be modified to account for new communication options inRD settings. * Feldman and March (1981) describes how management reflects need toappear competent and legitimate. * Keen (1988)* Leifer (1988) describes how to match communication informationsystems with organizational structures. * Papa and Tracy (1988) discusses CMC communication network features. 3.4Organizational CMC* Steinfield (1992) describes directions for theory and research in CMC inorganizations. * Danowski and Edison-Swift (1985) describes effects ofintraorganizational computer communication. * Hiltz, Johson, and Turoff (1986) surveys experiments in group decisionmaking; compares group problem-solving for FTF and CMC forqualitative and scientific rankings test. * Huber (1990a) we need to re-examine theory for small group interactionin computer-supported context. * Huber (1990b) analyzes capabilities of new decision technologies andhow these are relevant to existing organizational theories. * Johansen and DeGrasse (1979) describes effects of computer-basedteleconferencing on working patterns. * Johansen, DeGrasse, and Wilson (1978) describes effects of groupcommunication via computers on working patterns. * Nunamaker, Dennis, Valacich, Vogel, and George (1991) describeselectronic meetings in support of group work. * Nunamaker, Applegate, and Konsynski (1987) presents experiences withgroup support systems for facilitating creativity. * Rice (1980) reviews CMC research conducted in the 1970s. * Rice (1987) asserts that CMC provides organizations ways to enhanceresourcefulness and responsiveness. * Rice (1989b) explores use of CMC in organizations, finds more exchange. * Rice and Shook (1990a) explores job categories and organizational levelsand communication channels, including email. * Rice and Steinfield (1990) describes new forms of organizationalcommunication by email and voice messaging. * Siegel, Dubrovsky, Kiesler, and McGuire (1986)* Valacich, Dennis, and J. F. Nunamaker (1991)* Zachary (1986)* Zmud (1979) describes individual differences approach to explaininghuman behavior when confronted with technology. * Crowston, Malone, and Lin (1988) presents a case study oforganizational design for computer conferencing. * Finholt and Sproull (1990) re-examine theory of small groups whenusing computer support. * Murphy (1992) describes a case history illustrating howinformation-processing system fits organizational requirements. 3.5CSCW* Applegate (1991) sets theory foundation for group work in organizations. * Galegher and Kraut (1990) sets forth the research and design issues ofcooperative work. * Greenberg (1991a) defines groupware and CSCW and introduces volumeon CSCW and groupware. * Acker (1992) describes a GDSS which facilitates collaborative fiction. * Garcia-Luna-Aceves, Craighill, and Lang (1988) explores MOSAIC, amodel for CSCW providing a share view. * Greenberg (1991b) presents annotated bibliography and description ofinformation sources for CSCW and groupware. * Grief (1988) presents readings in CSCW* Gutek (1990) describes how group must fit technology to task structure. * Hiltz, Turoff, and K. (1989) presents experiments in group decisionmaking* Hiltz (1984) describes the complex technological and social variables inCMC acceptance. * Johansen (1988) describes groupware for business teams. * Johnson-Lenz and Johnson-Lenz (1982) defines the term groupware. * Kraemer and L (1988) describe group decision support systems,evaluate experience, benefits, barriers. * Opper and Fersko-Weiss (1992) describes how technology can enhanceproductivity for teams in organizations. * Rice and Shook (1990b) describes how group must fit technology to taskstructure. * Rothschild and Whitt (1986) describes cooperative work. * Sproull and Kiesler (1991b) describes how networked communicationand information will transform organizational behavior. * Sproull and Kiesler (1991a) asserts that CMC leads to more discussion,equality, emotions, creativity. * Stefik, Foster, Bobrow, Kahn, Lannry, and Suchman (1988) describescomputer support for collaboration and problem-solving in meetings. * Stodolsky (1993) describes the USENET comp.groupware newsgroup. * Turoff (1991)* Ellis, Gibbs, and Rein (1991)* Pinsonneault and Kraemer (1989) describes empirical research into theimpact of technological support for groups. 3.5.1 GDSS* Kraemer and Pinsonneault (1990) describes how group must fittechnology to task structure. 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